Some Major Stylistic Periods of Medieval Art and
Architecture
Churches, Abbeys, Cathedrals, Basilicas, Monasteries and Castles.
England; 1. Early
Christian
(c500-600)
archway of St. Piran's
oratory.
2.
Anglo-Saxon
(c450-1066)
Main archway
and exterior arch of
Odda's chapel, dogtooth and smallsquare
windows 1 2 ([]),
doorways 1(back)2 3 4, archways
(detail), column and back
of main arch (+) at St.
Mary's,
Deerhurst, arcading details 1 2 3
4, south front, inner
doorways 1 2, exterior archway
and sculpture in Saint
Laurence, Bradford on
Avon, (o), Hedda
stone, Peterborough, windows
and doorway of Earl's
Barton church and windows
of All Saint's church, Brixworth, Northamptonshire,
font
of St. Mary's, Luppitt, window (detail) of St.
Bueno's church, window
of Wembury
church, Devon, ([][][]), tower
of St. Margaret's church, Bagendon, tower
of St.
Peter's church,
Barton-upon-Humber, tower
(random) and archway of St. Michael's
church,
Duntisbourne
Rouse, interior of Escomb church, Durham, interior of St. Mary's
church, Reculver, Kent,
tower of St. Paul's
monastery, Jarrow, round tower
of Burnham
Deepdale church, Norfolk,
doorway of St. James
the Great church, Coln St. Dennis, doorway, westwork, archway
and
spandrel of St. Michael and All
Angels,
Ledbury, tower of Tewkesbury Abbey,
church house buildings of Gloucester Cathedral 1 2, doorway of St. Mary's Priory church,
Monmouth, saddleback tower, columns and doorway
of St.
Mary's church, Syde, (ooo), tower
of St.
Oswalds
church, Lassington, tower of St.
Swithuns church, Brookthorpe, tower of St
Margaret's
church,
Bagendon, carving at
the Holy Rood church, Daglingworth, (oo), tower of St.
Peter's church,
Duntisbourne Abbots, tower
and window of St. Michael's
church, Duntisbourne Rouse, north
doorway, south doorway (detail) and arch of St. Mary's, Great Washbourne,
(+++), cross at
Mylor parish
church, (++++), jambs 1 2
3 4,
arches 1 2,
base
block and pilaster strip (detail) of
St. Lawrence church, Coln Rogers, north doorway (detail)
of St. Andrew's church, Brewardine,
(+++++), doorway and cross shaft of St. Andrew's
church, Cold Aston, (++++++), splay window
of St. Peter's church, Stanway, archform of St. Peter's church,
Cornwell, archform and
smallsqaure
window frames 1 2 of St. David's church,
Muchdewchurch, ([][]), cross shaft (detail) at All Saints
church, Childwall, herringbone masonry,
buttress with small square form, semi-circular,
splay,
rectangular, square form windows and doorway of Edvin
Loach old church, (G), carvings at
St. Peter's
church, Bromyard, (I)..
3. Celtic
(c500-1150)
Font details 1 and 2 of St. Mary Magdelene
church, Stoke Canon, cross at St. John's
church,
Morwenstow, cross and pillar (detail) of
Mylor Parish church.
4.
Romanesque
(c1100-1200)
archway near Siverton village, doorway of St. Michael and All Angels church,
Meeth, exterior
columns 1 2
and interior columns 1 2 of the Priory church, Leominster, left
archway columns 1 2
,
right archway columns 1 2, central archway columns 1 2 and dragon form of Shobdon
church, see
(******).
5. Norman
(c1066-1180)
west door and dragon form of St.
Michael
and All Angels, north
door
of Stanley
Pontlarge church,
pillars
of Pershore
Abbey, vault
and Gallilee Chapel of Durham
Cathedral, nave of Tewkesbury
Abbey,
crossing
vault of Worcester Cathedral, doorway
of Eckington church, doorway
of
Guiting Power church,
doorway(s)
and details 1 2 3 4 (###) of
Withington
church, upper
archway of Bibury
church,
nave (detail)
and doorway of Leominster church, doorway of
English
Bicknor, doorway, archway,
rib vault, portal
,capitals 1 2 3 4 5 with dragonforms 1
2 of
St. Giles, Bredon, (*), doorway of Westwell
church, corner capitals 1 2
3 4 of
Coln St. Denis church, doorway
of Coln
St. Aldwyns church, doorway
of Ledbury church, north
wall
of Rock
church, arch, westwork
(**), choir
arcades and capitals of Hereford
cathedral, corner
capital, font, vault,
corner capitals 1 2 3 4, vault (oblique view) and
tower of Holy Cross
church, Avening, (####), corner
capital
of St. John the Baptist's church, Hatherleigh, nave
of St.
Mary's,
Kempley, doorway
of Kilpeck church, doorway
of Lincoln cathedral, corner
butresses of
Chipping Campden church, corner
capital, chancel arch and nave details
of Garway
church,
capital, archway
and dragon
form (++) of Tredington church, nave
and pillars
of Peterborough
cathedral,
corner
capitals and archway
of Iffley church, archway of
St. Mary's, Shrewsbury, pillar, inner
and outer
archways of Morwenstow
church (!), nave
and capital of Gloucester
cathedral, doorway
of St. Mary's,
Gloucester, window
of Boddington
church, windows of St. Andrew's church, Bere
Ferrers, 1 2
(interior
view) 3 (linear), 3(cistercian,cusp), 4(cusp), (interior
view) 5 (geometric,
random),
windows of St.
Mary's church, Luppitt, 1 2
(linear) 3
(cusp), doorway of Kilkhampton church,
window (interior view) (linear) of
Doddisombleigh church, window (cusp) of
St. Petroc's,
Lydford, window (linear) of
St. Michael de la Rupe
church, Brentor, windows, 1 (cusp,random)
2 (linear) of Saint Werburgh's
church,
Wembury, window
(geometric, random) of Saint Winifred's
church, Branscombe, windows 1 2
(cusp) 3 (random) of St. Mary's church,
Rewe, windows
1(cusp) 2 (cusp, cistercian) of St. Thomas's
church, Thorverton, window
(cusp) of St. Michael's,
Cadbury, tower of St. Paul de
Leon church,
Staverton, towers of St. Nonna's church,
Bradstone,
and St. Bridget's church,
Bridestowe, window (linear)
and font of Holy Trinity,
Drewsteignton,
arch scroll (detail)
of St. Petroc's, Inwardleigh, font
and doorway (s) of St.
Nonna's church, Alturnun,
font
of St. Mary the Virgin, Bratton Clovelly, tower
of St. German's church,
Germansweek, tower
of St. Michael's church, Meeth, windows,
doorways (1), (2)
, archways, corner capitals (1), (2),
column, stringcourse
and cross
rib vaulting of St. German's church,
St. German, doorway and
buttressing of St.
Peter's, Revelstoke, archway
of St.Peter's church, Tiverton, window
(linear) of
St. Mary's church, Hemyock, font
and piscina of St. Mary's church,
Cheriton
Bishop, corner
capitals 1 2 3 4 of Holy Cross
church, Crediton, font (detail) of St. Michael and all Angels,
Exeter,
doorways 1 2 and typanum
of St. John the Baptist church and windows
of the Bishop's Palace,
Bishopsteignton, font of All Saint's
church, Eggesford, archway details 1 2
of St. Mary's church,
High Bickington, font and window of St. Pancras's church, Exeter, doorway and corner
capital
of All Saints church, North Cerney, font details 1, 2, 3, 4 of St.
Peter's church, Rendcomb,
doorway with diaper
pattern, volute capital , font details 1 2 3
(!!!!) of St. Peter's church, Southrop,
archway
and tower of Temple church, Temple,
Cornwall, archway (detail),
corner capitals 1, 2
and
window (linear) of St. Michael's
church, Shebbear, corner capitals 1 2 of St. Michael's church,
Duntisbourne
Rouse, archway , pillars 1, 2 and window (linear)of St. Mary's
church, Great Barrington,
archway
and corner capitals 1 2 of St. Peters church, Little
Barrington, font
details 1 2 3 4 and piscina
of St.Michael's church, Spreyton, font of
St. Michael and All Angels church,
Frithelstock, archway
details 1 2 of
St.
Benedict's church, Buckland Brewer, archway details 1 2 and font of All Saints church,
Clovelly, font of St. Matthew's
church, Butterleigh, archway details 1 2 of St. James'
church, Parkham,
archway details 1 2
of All Hallows church, Woolfardisworthy, font
of All Saints church, Merton,
arch fragment
of St. Michael's church, Dowdeswell, archway
of St.Mary's church, East
Worlington,
archway details 1 2 of St.
Giles's church, Ashleigh, entrance
archway details 1 2 3, chancel archway
details 1 2 3
and window (exterior
view) of St. Mary's church, Lower
Swell, archway details 1 2 of
St.
Mary's, church, Upper Swell, archway (detail), chancel boss, chancel pillar with dragon
form, chancel
detail , porch capitals
and capital , clustered capitals and carvings 1
2 of
St. John the Baptist church,
Elkstone, (##), westwork ,(**),of
Tewkesbury abbey, trefoil capital of
Winchester
Cathedral, doorway
of St. Mary's Priory church, Monmouth, doorway
and pillars of St. Swithun's church,
Leonard Stanley,
cushion capitals 1 2 of Gloucester Cathedral crypt, (****), tympanum
and corner capital of St. Stephen's
church,
Moreton Valence, corner capitals of
Hereford cathedral,
corner capital, tympanum
of St.
Mary's
church, Byton (*****), tympanum
of St.
Nicholas' church, Gloucester, tympanum
of
Shobdon church,
archway and column of the Priory church, Leominster,
(******), butresses
of St.
Mary's, Little
Washourne, font at St.
Nectan's church, Stoke, doorway (detail) and cross
of Mylor parish church,
(********), capital, archway and column
of St. Mary's church,Great Barrington, doorway,
moulding
and tympanum
of St. Peter's church, Little Barrington, tympanum
(detail) of St. Andrew's church,
Brewardine, doorway, tympanum
and corner capital of St. Andrew's
church, Cold Aston, stars
and
capital fragments of St. Margaret's
church, Alderton, (*********), column and arches of Evesham
Abbey, arch of St. Michael's church,
Stanton, arches 1 2
and pillars of St. Eadburgha's church,
Broadway, cluster capital of
St. Peter's church, Stanway, arcade and
scallop capital of St.
Bartholomew's church,
Aldsworth, cushion capitals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 of
Worcester Cathedral, (**********),
cushion
, volute, oblong capitals and gravestones 1 2 3
4 at St. John the Baptist church, Great
Rissington,
capitals 1 2 and archform
of St. Peter's church, Cornwell, font
and pillar of St. Leonard's church,
Bledington, clustered column
and arch of St. David's church,
Much Dewchurch, arch and column of St.
James the Great church,
Stoke Orchard, archforms 1 2 3
of Glastonbury Abbey, (***********),
archway
and capital of the Holy Rood
church, Daglingworth, (************), capital
at All Saints church,
Childwall, interlace
archfoms at Winchester
Cathedral, gravestone at St.
Mary's and All
Angels church,
Brimpsfield, capital
at Our Lady and St. Kenelm's church, Stow on the Wold, font (detail)
of St. Mary's
church, Cowley, doorway and corner capital.of St. Andrew's church, Hazleton, archway at
St. Oswald's
church, Shipton Oliffe, (B), doorway
of St. Paul's church, Shurdington, font
of
Llanrothal church, pillar
details 1 2
of the chapel
at St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall,
(D), corner capital of St. Michael and
All
Angels, Guiting Power, font of Holy
Trinity church, Ilfracombe, (E), Agnus Dei
symbol, doorway, left and
right capitals of St. Peter
and St. Paul church, Holsworthy, (F), doorways with capitals 1(left, right),
2(left,
right), 3(left, right),
chancel pillars 1 2
of St. Peter's church, Bromyard,
(H), tympanum and
pillars 1 2
(details 1 2 3) )of St. Mary Magdalene leper church,
Gloucester, (J).
6. Lancet (Early English)
(c1180-1275)
Wells
Cathedral, nave of Lincoln
Cathedral, abbeys of Byland, Rievaulx
and Whitby
in
. Yorkshire, lancet
windows of York
Cathedral, nave
and lancet
windows of
Salisbury
cathedral, piscina
in Saint
Dubricius's, Porlock, arcade
and colonettes
of Worcester
Cathedral,
windows, interior, of St. Andrew's church,
Sevenhampton, windows
of Castle Combe
church, outbuilding
of Buckland abbey, lancet window of
St. Andrew's church, Bere Ferrers,
window of Tintagel church, window of St. Swithuns church, Cornwall, window of St.Mary's, Luppitt,
window of St.
Petroc's church, Lydford, window of de la Rupe church, window
of St. Michael's,
Cadbury, windows 1 2 (trefoil) of St. Mary's church,
Poltimore, buttresses 1 2 (trefoil) of St. Mary's,
Bickleigh, doorway of St. John the
Baptist Church, Bere Regis, Dorset, window (s) and arcade
of
Exeter Cathedral, St. John the Baptist's
church, Hatherleigh, font of St.
Peter's church, Southrop,
window and piscina, of St. Mary's church,
Great Washbourne, font and piscinas 1 2 of St.
Margaret
of Antioch church , Alderton, doorway
of King Charles the Martyr's church, Falmouth, piscinas
of
St. Mary's church, Silverton, windows
of St. Michael and All Angels church,
Frithelstock, piscina of
St. Matthew's church, Butterleigh, font of
St. Michael and All Angels church, Meeth, font of All
Hallows church, Woolfardisworthy, lower archway
of St. Mary's church, Bibury, arches 1 2 of Hailes
Abbey, buttress of Hereford
Cathedral, trefoil plate tracery of
Winchester Cathedral, lancet window of
St. George's church, Brisop, lancet windows 1 2 3 of Salisbury
Cathedral, lancet window of Boyton church,
arch form of Hartland Abbey (!!), arch and tower of St.
Nectan's church, Stoke, arches 1 2 (detail), pillar,
lancet windows 1 2 and circles
of Blackfriars Abbey, Gloucester, (!!!), trefoil
headed window of St. Giles,
Bredon, arches, trefoil and lancet
windows of St. Michael's church, Stanton, trefoil archforms of Glastonbury
Abbey, (**********), fragment
at St. Mary's church, Prestbury, arches of
Hailes Abbey, archway of
St. Paul's church, Shurdington, chancel arch
of St. George's church, Orleton.
7. Response to
Geometric (c1240-1280)
Choir of Lincoln
Cathedral, chapterhouse of Westminster
Abbey, cloister
of Salisbury cathedral, window
detail of Boyton church, arch
detail of Sevenhampton church, cloister
window of Exeter cathedral, window
of
St.
Michael's, Buckland, cloister
of Gloucester cathedral, archform
and arch detail of St. Andrew's church,
Cullompton, window of St. Mary's, Rewe, window (interior
view)of St.Petroc's church, Lydford, window
of
St. Mary's church, Huxham, Devon, window
(interior view) of St. Mary's,
Poltimore, windows 1 2 3 4 5 of St.
Peter's church,
Tiverton, window of St.
Ida the Green , Ide, window
of St. Mary's, Upton Hellions, balustrade
and turret of St. John the
Baptist church, Plymtree, font
(random) of St.Mary's church, Great Washbourne, font
(random) of St. Mary's church,
Black Torrington, balustrade of King
Charles the Martyr's
church, Falmouth,
balustrade of St.
Michael and All Angels church, Frithelstock, fragment
at Hailes Abbey, quatrefoils at
Gloucester
Cathedral, window and archway of St. Mary's Church,
Ross-on-Wye, window of St. Lawrence
church, Stroud,
(plan), tympanum
at Hartland Abbey, (*******), Agnus Dei fragment
of Glastonbury Abbey,
8.
Linear
(c1280-1300)
St.
Etheldreda's church window, London, Merton College
Chapel east and north windows, (#),
Oxford,
Buckland
Abbey, cloister
window (s)
of Exeter cathedral, Bere Ferrers
church window (interior view) (detail),
window
of St.
Nonna's church, Altarnun.
9.
Cusp
(c1280)
window (s), (detail), of Gulval church,
Penzance. St. Ives church,
Cornwall, window of Kilkhampton
church, doorway (detail)
of St. Mary's, Stoke Cannon, window of
St. Mary's church,
Silverton
(interior view), windows 1
2 of St. John's church, Broadclyst, window of St.
Mary's church, Poltimore,
window (detail) (interior
view) of St. Mary's
church, Bickleigh, windows 1 2 of
St. Mary's church, Upton
Pyne, window of St. John the Baptist church, Netherexe, doorway of St. Andrew's church, Coln Rogers.
10. Response to Rayonnant
(c1280-1300)
Boyton Church rose
window , Wiltshire, St. Mary's window,
Cheltenham, window of St. Peter's church,
Bramford Speke.
11.
Curvilinear
(c1275-1380)
archform at All Saints church, Childwall.
12. Perpendicular
(c1380-1520)
East
window, cloister
window(s),
arcade wall and vault
of Gloucester cathedral, east
window of
St.
Mary's, Frampton on Severn, window
of St. Andrew's church, Moretonhampstead,
font of St. Michael's
church, Dowdeswell, spade design, fan and spade
vaulting (detail) of St. Peter's church,
Winchcombe, outbuilding of Sudeley Castle, fan vaulting, archway
and window of St. John the Baptist
church,
Cirencester, outbuilding at Bourton
Hill, spade design and window of St. Mary's church,
Painswick, spade
and shield design at Greyfriars
church, Gloucester, fan vaulting of
Beverston chapel, windows 1 2 3
of St.
Leonard's church, Bledington, window
and buttress of St. Edward's church,
Stow on the Wold, fan vaulting
of St. Andrew's church, Cullumpton, archways
of St. Catherine's church, Chipping Campden.
Wales; 1.
Norman
(c1066-1180)
Chevron pattern of St.
Mary's church, Monmouth, drum pillar of
Dore Abbey, volute capitals 1 2 3 and
windows 1 2 3 of Llanthony Priory, (\\\\), green man and dragon
form at Brecon Cathedral, (\\\\\),
doorway, column, clearstorey, pillar, archway
and corner capitals of St. David's Cathedral.
2.
Anglo-Romanesque
(c1050-1137)
Pillar of St. Bridget's church, Skenfrith,
(A).
3.
Romanesque
(c1066-1180)
Windows, 1 2, and doorways, 1 2 of St. Thomas's church,
Monmouth.
4. Lancet
(c1180-1275)
Nave
(arch
detail) of Tintern Abbey, oculus of
Llanthony
Priory, lancet
windows and
facade of Abbey
Dore, (\\).
5.
Response to Geometric
(c1240-1280)
Clearstorey
windows of Tintern Abbey, font,
nave, arches
and pillar of St. Nicholas' church,
Grosmont,
capitals 1 2
of Llanthony Priory, columns, bosses 1 2 and archforms of Brecon Cathedral, (\\\),
pillars 1 2
of St. Bridget's church, Skenfrith, archway
of St. David's cathedral.
6.
Linear
(c1280-1300)
Brecon Cathedral window.
7.
Curvilinear
(c1275-1380)
Rose window, arcades
and chapel of the Bishop's
Palace, St. David's.
8.
Perpendicular
(c1380-1520)
Tower of
St. Mary's church, Brecon.
Ireland 1.
Anglo-Saxon
(c850-1067)
Windows at 185,180,135,90 and 30
degrees of the round tower of
Rock of Cashel, round tower
details at
Monasterboice, round tower
and herringbone archform at St. Finian's
church, Clonmacnoise, rectangular
forms at McCarthy's round
tower, Clonmacnoise, round
tower of
Iniscealtra, round tower of
Kilmacduagh,
round tower at
Scattery
Island, round tower of Kells, round tower of Clones, round tower (detail) of Kildare,
triangular
roof form, quadrilateral and dogtooth windows
at St. Doulagh's church, bell from Rock of Cashel.
(possibly with later Anglo-Norman features)
2. Anglo-Norman
(c1067-1172)
round tower at Devenish
Island, round tower of
Ardmore, conic top of St. Finian's round tower,
Clonmacnoise, round tower at
Kilossy, doorways 1 2, corner
capital and gravestone of
Christchurch
Cathedral, Dublin, round tower of St.
Canice's Cathedral, Kilkenny, views front, back, left, right of the
round tower at Timahoe, window of St. Peter and St. Paul's
Cathedral, doorways 1 2 of the Priest's
House,
round tower details 1 2, doorway,
front and tower
of St. Kevin's church, St. Mary's church, arches 1 2 and
windows 1 2
of Reefert church, Glendalough.
3. Lancet
(c1180-1275)
Lancet windows of Christchurch Cathedral, Dublin, vault of
Timoleague Abbey, exterior arches 1 2,
interior arch, vault, lancet
windows and nave of the Cathedral at Rock of Cashel, Hore Abbey.
4.
Perpendicular
(c1380-1520)
Westwork battlements of Down Cathedral, church of St. Mochua at Timahoe.(\\\\\\\).
Scotland 1.
Anglo-Saxon
(c?-1067)
Doorway and window
of Abernethy round tower, (C).
2. Lancet
(c1180-1275)
Crypt , exterior
walkways 1 2 and lancet
windows of St. Kentgern's Cathedral, Glasgow.
3.
Perpendicular
(c1380-1520)
spade design at Rosslyn chapel, Roslin,
(\\\\\\\\\).
France 1.
Norman
(c1066-1120)
corner tower of Jumieges Abbey, Normandy, ribbed vault of Saint Etienne Abbey,
Caen, pointed
archforms of the
Basilica of Paray-le-Monial, Burgundy, nave, rib vault and clearstorey
of Lessay
Abbey (\\\\\\).
Sweden: 1.
Romanesque
(c1100-1250)
Apse
and crypt pillars
of Lund
cathedral
2. Regional
Gothic
(c1250-1400)
Storkyran interior,
Stockholm
Gotland; 1. Romanesque
(c1100-1250)
Tower
of St.
Lars, St.
Drottens in
Visby, Gotland, cloister
pavement
in Roma, Gotland.
(\) 2. Response to
Geometric/
(c1200-1300)
Vault, doorway (cusp)
and window
(cusp) of Helge And, crossing
and doorway
of St. Lars, St. Katarina,
English
rose
window of St. Nicolaus,
St. Clemens, defensive
walls in Visby, Gotland.
3. Regional Gothic
(c1250-1400)
Doorway(s)
and window
of Tofta, doorway
and window
of Masterby,
more
doorway(s) of
Bro
churches in Gotland
Denmark; 1.
Romanesque
(c1100-1200) Doorway
of Osterlars
church, Ostermarie
church, Bornholm, crypt
of Viborg cathedral,
doorway
and pillar
of Ribe
cathedral, doorway
of Aalborg church, crypt
of Arhus cathedral,
Roskilde
cathedral
2.
Norman
(c1100-1180)
Stege church, doorway
of Helsingborg
church, pillar
of Absalon's church, Copenhagen
3. Response to English
(c1200-1300)
Sakskobing
church
4. Response to
Lancet
(c1200-1300)
Vejle
church
5. Response to Cistercian
(c1250-1300)
Bornholm round churches of Osterlars, Olsker, Nyker and Nylars.
6. Regional
Gothic
(c1350)
Frescoes
of Osterlars ( 1 2 3
), Nyker (1
2
3)
and Nylars ( 1
2 3 ),
Bornholm.
7. Regional
Scandinavian
(c1250-1400)
Elmelund
church, Svendborg
church, Nakskov
church, Odense
cathedral, Vor
Frue Kirke,
Odense, St. Olav's church,
Faroe Islands, (***).
Norway; 1. Norman
(c1100-1180)
Cathedral
of St. Halvard, Royal
Chapel of St. Mary's, (ambient),
Oslo, Archbishop's
Palace
and archway
of the cathedral in Trondheim, archway
and pillar
of Stavanger
cathedral , doorway (detail)
of St. Paul's church, Bergen.
2.
Cistercian
(c1150)
Hovedoy cloister ,
Oslo
3.
Romanesque
(c1100-1200)
Doorway
(detail) and interior (1 2) of St.
Mary's Church,
Bergen, doorway (interior) of Varhaug church,
Stavanger.
4. Response to
English
(c1200-1300)
Trondheim
Cathedral nave, Apostle's church, Bergen
Sicily; 1.
Norman
(c1070-1180)
Pavement
of San
Cataldo church, Pavement of Capella
Palatina in Palazzo dei Normanni,
Choir Pavements of Monreale
Cathedral.
Poland 1.Response to
Geometric
(c1280-)
St. Anne's chapel , Malbork Castle.
(Cusp)
2.Response to Scandinavian (c1350)
St. Mary's church, Gdansk.
Belgium 1. Romanesque
(c1134-1139)
Columns and doorway of St. Basil's chapel, Bruges.
2.
Regional Gothic
(c1250-1400)
Vault
of St. Michael's church, St. Nicholas's church, Ghent.
Austria
1. Romanesque
(c1140-1200)
Crypt of Gurk Cathedral.
(o)
According to M. Hearn, the sculpture is influenced by Carolingian
designs, see also (!!!!) here. In the
exterior archway, the reveal is recessed
from the
respond, a feature which Clapham in "English Romanesque Architecture
before the Conquest" claims are more common in Anglo-Saxon
churches of the north of England. The arcading exhibits regular bands
with both 3 attached shafts, which Clapham mentions are used at Worth,
Clayton and Wittering, and 1 attached shaft, also used at Worth, and at
Wing, in the arch intersections. There is slight recessing in the
arcading and
a triangular form above the south front doorway, although, Clapham
notes there is greater recessing and the use of triangular forms in the
arcading at Earl's Barton, Barton-on-Humber and Deerhurst. Pilaster
strips, as at Colne Rogers in Gloucestershire, are used on the south
front
corner, which are, unusually, buttress like, horizontal jambs are used
on both inner doorways, as at Escomb and Odda's chapel, and there is an
asymmetry
in the doorways along the axial line of the church. Unlike Earl's
Barton, there are no herringbone networks along the walls. There is a
double splay window on the south front. Clapham dates the church to the
early 10th century, the later Anglo-Saxon period, and after the
Carolingian period, (780-900).
(oo) The Y-shape of the "Christ in
Majesty" sculpture is typical of the Anglo-Saxon period.
(ooo) The lintelled doorway is typically
Anglo-Saxon, with the saddleback tower having the characteristic
triangular form.
(+)
According to George Zarnecki, the doghead is a precursor of beak-head
ornamentation
developed in Norman art, noting the parallel grooves, which
are later used
in the Anglo-Norman dragonforms at Malmesbury Abbey. The doorways
exhibit oblong, dogtooth and the asymmetric quadrilateral
geometry, which is used extensively in Anglo-Saxon architecture in
Ireland, see (\\\\\\\). The column, with its cubical capital is
reminiscent of later
Anglo-Norman art. Fischer in "Anglo-Saxon Towers" notes the
asymmetry in the tower at Deerhurst, which can also be found in the
third doorway.
(++) The parallel
grooves suggest a relationship with the form at
Deerhurst, further supporting the idea that Anglo-Norman sculpture was
influenced by
Anglo-Saxon art, Zarnecki mentions this connection in "English
Romanesque Scupture, 1066-1140".
.
(+++) There is a resemblance with
the arch forms at Odda's chapel and Turkdean, but the chancel
arch could be Anglo-Norman, the star pattern and arch
is similar to those at
Brewardine, see (*****).
(++++) The cross cuts out a star pattern,
similar to that at Brewardine, suggesting an Anglo-Saxon influence, see
also (********), again there is a diagonal
relationship, parallel to the Cornish coast, and a further diagonal
with the north west coast of France, passing through the Scilly Isles
and the south of
Ireland,
see also (++++++) here.
(+++++) The pilaster strip in the north wall at Coln
Rogers is
mentioned in Clapham's "English Romanesque Architecture before the
Conquest", noting that
they are
usually terminated by a base block, which is absent here. The interior
facing
arches of the north and south walls, exhibit a typical use of jambs,
though
the shape of the north arch is unusual. The jamb with respond in the
exterior porch doorway is terminated by a base block, though the corner
capital
is Norman,
see (*****), the chancel jamb exhibits a beaded moulding, a Norman
feature, similar to Mylor, see (********) and Cury. The
jambs of the
interior south doorway are asymmetric, one being unusually short and
possibly broken. The jambs and archway of the north door at
Brewardine are typically Anglo-Saxon. The 6-leaf pattern of the star
designs might suggest that this form might occur with an even number of
points in
Anglo-Saxon art. In even sided polygons, the opposite sides are
parallel, in which case the method of harmonic variations variations
doesn't work. For an
even number, one can instead consider bitangent degenerations with the
tangent lines all passing through a point, in which case the tangent
lines do not pair
into parallels, see also (*********).
(++++++) The use of jambs and a narrow archway at Cold Aston is
Anglo-Saxon, see also
(+++++), the star or snowflake pattern on the tympanum band might
be
connected to the main Norman design of the church. The cross shaft has
a braiding
pattern, similar to the fragments at St. Oswald's Priory, see
also
(++++) here.
(!)
Use of beakhead ornamentation occurs in the outer archway, alternating
orders in the inner archway, as at Malmesbury Abbey.
(!!!!) The
tympanum and capitals are dated to about 1180 in Jerry Hibbert's
leaflet on St. Peter's church, which agrees with Zarnecki's and the
leaflet's
dating of the font. For more information on the volute capital, see
(*******) here,
but this is probably a late transitional version, (c1180; Zarnicki's
date,
also in leaflet). The diaper pattern is typically Norman with
intersecting diagonals, demonstrating the aesthetic of fragmentation.
The details of
the font depict a square buckle, a spandrel between two arches, and the
figure of Prudentia holding a staff with a cross. The spandrel form
also
occurs
in conjunction with Anglo-Saxon architecture, with a circular buckle of
the same date appearing at Elkstone church, 1180 (Zarnecki),
see (##).
(!!) Similar to the arch forms
at Hailes Abbey, see (!!!).
(!!!) The trefoil headed windows are
similar to Hailes Abbey, while the interior lancet is typical of the
period, the broader window has a slight apex, is
claimed to be a lancet, and is similar to early uses of the lancet form
at Monreale, Sicily, see also (!) here. The pillar
might be a development of the
Norman
period, with a connection to water. The use of
circles in a cross
is typical of the later Geometric style in England, this could be an
early
use of this idea, dating the Abbey to about 1240.
(*) Belonging to the
Transitional style of Norman architecture, arond 1170, the drum capital
might be a new development, see (!!!) but the corner
volute
capitals are copied from earlier forms, see (*******) here. The
dragonforms on the west portal are of the grooved and non-grooved
forms,
see (++).
(**)
Anglo-Saxon feature introduced into Norman archiecture by Robert
of Jumieges in 1067, the triangular design dating from Lorsch abbey.
(***) Possibly built as
early as 1200.
(****) According to "English
Romanesque Scupture, 1066-1140", by Zarnecki, cushion capitals are
Anglo-Norman but had already been
used
in Anglo-Saxon buidings; one can observe the simlarity with earlier
designs, such as at Odda's chapel, Gloucestershire. He argues that they
were
introduced between 1066 and 1100, dating the crypt to 1089.
(*****) In the same book, Zarnecki argues that
corner capitals and
tympana were introduced between 1100 and 1140, "The doorways often had
carved
voussoirs, tympana,
capitals and shafts, he dates this part of St. Stephen's church
to 1120. The detail of the column at Hereford Cathedral
resembling the carving at Daglingworth, and the star patterns at
Brewardine, with their centralised geometries, again suggest an
Anglo-Saxon influence. Again, there is a similar influence at
Byton, Zarnecki notes that these abstract patterns "so typical of
some Anglo-Saxon
carvings, survived in many works that date from the late 11th or early
12th century". The Agnus Dei symbol is unusual in that the cross slants
diagonally
rather than vertically, as in
the Valviscolo cloisters, Italy, Kilpeck, Great Washbourne and Temple
Guiting, suggesting a stronger
Norman rather then
Cistercian influence.
(******) This belongs to the period of Later Romanesque
sculpture, 1140-1210, discussed in Zarnecki's following book. He
dates Shobdon to around 1140,
idenifying the columns as the first works of the Herefordshire School,
the porticoe with the trefoil pattern is influenced by Anglo-Saxon
designs, but is
Anglo-Norman. The columns at the Priory church are later works of the
Herefordshire school, again there is a combination of Anglo-Saxon and
Norman motifs in the archway and column.
(*******) Compare with the design in the cloister at Salisbury
Cathedral.
(********) The chevron pattern, with a beaded moulding along the
diagonals, is a copy of the design at Cury,
suggesting a relationship
between the 2 locations.
The diagonals in the cross of the archway is also a Norman feature,
similar to that at Byton and Egloskerry, with a
connection to the symbol of the
Knight's Templar. The diagonal passes between these three churches,
roughly parallel to the North coast of
Cornwall.
(*********) The corner capitals in the south door at Brewardine are
typically Norman, the 11-leaf pattern of the star designs in the
tympanum suggests
that this
form can occur with an odd or prime number of points
in Norman art. In the case of curves with odd degree, one can use
the method of harmonic
variations to investigate the notion of genus of
a curve, see also (+++++) The Norman corner capitals at Cold Aston are
of the volute type, see
(*******) here, but, unlike
at Brewardine, the tympanum has star designs, with an even number of 4
points, set on a diagonal square. Both star
designs could be reminiscent of snowflakes. There is a cushion corner
capital fragment at Alderton, see also (****), the star design has 8
points,
and is again set on a diagonal square, showing that the Normans used an
even or odd number of points in such designs. One can observe narrow
arch forms and the use of a jamb in the
column shaft at Evesham Abbey, dated to 1130. The trefoil shaped
capital is different from the usual
Norman cushion capital design, which Zarnecki describes as
Anglo-Norman, acknowledging the Anglo-Saxon influence, but further
strengthens the
view that the trefoil is an Anglo-Saxon idea, and occurs before 1180.
(**********) The capital and arches are Anglo-Norman, with the use of
the narrow circular arch, jambs in the pillar shafts and a striking
resemblance to the base
of the font design at Ampney, see (####) here. The cluster
capital at Stanway seems to be a development of the earlier Norman
cushion capital, see
(****), while the scallop capitals at Broadway, Stanton
and Aldsworth are another progression, in a further multiplication of
forms, and belong to the
transitional style. The cushion capitals at Worcester,
formed as the intersection of a hemisphere with a cube, are
Anglo-Norman, as noted by Zarnecki,
with developments involving an embattled pattern, the use of grooves,
further acknowleding the Anglo-Saxon influence, see (+) and (++), and
use in a
corner. Zarnecki dates the volute capitals at Gloucester
to 1089, but the cushion capitals there are composite developments of
the single capital form,
used at Worcester, so, the Worcester crypt could have
been built as early as 1084. Zarnecki claims that cushion capitals are
used in Anglo-Saxon
architecture, but the only similar example I could find in Clapham, is
at Worth, from the late 10th century, which is cubic and slightly
curved at the
edges, but lacks the precise geometry found here. The
trefoil headed arches in St. Mary's chapel at Glastonbury Abbey
are typical of the Early English
or Lancet period.
(***********) The
cushion capital at Great Rissington is clustered with grooves and
scallops, a combination of the innovation at Worcester Cathedral crypt
and linked
with
Broadway, Stanton and Aldsworth. The volutes at Great Rissington are
set on a drum capital, while the plain column must be a Norman copy of
the
Anglo-Saxon original in the Anglo-Norman style. The three types of
capital occur on three of the sides of the chancel. The gravestones at
Great
Rissington are all
decorated with swords. The capitals at Cornwell are scalloped, with the
archway typical of the transitional Norman period, (c1160).
The font and
capital at Bledington are both octagonal, with a similar transitional
archform. This might show that the octagonal design was adopted later,
and the font
belongs to the same period as the church itself. The archway and
columns at Muchdewchurch are similar to at Great Rissington and must be
another Norman copy. As at Cornwell, the pointed
archform at Stoke Orchard with the scalloped column is typical of the
transitional Norman period.
Similarly, the pointed lancet archforms at
Glastonbury Abbey suggest this was built about 1180, see also
(**********).
(************). The clustered column is an Anglo-Norman development on
the basic rectangular form and column used in Anglo-Saxon architecture,
for example at
Odda's chapel.
(#) An
extensive analysis of the linear style in England is given by Bony,
noting the influence of Norman art. In the east window, one can see
both the
aesthetic of fragmentation and the use of Y-tracery. In the north
window, one can see linearity reflected in the use of the lancet form,
but there is
also a combination with the use of trefoils, a feature of Early English
designs, and influenced by Anglo-Saxon designs.
(##) Zarnecki dates the
boss in the chancel vault to 1180, it depicts a circular buckle with 2
animal heads and 8 points. The dragon head also has 4
points on either side of the mouth, the grooving suggestive of
Anglo-Saxon art, see (++), but the points are also similar to those
used in Norman
art, for example at Mylor, see (********) and (++++++) here. The position
of
the buckle suggests a further link with the capital, possibly
depicting
an owl, the beak in the middle, on the right side of the main doorway,
pointed to by the right hand of the father in the tympanum. There are
further architectural tricks in the chancel detail, depicting 2
semicircles, which might be positioned in the grooves of the porch
capitals, by the main
doorway. The two sets of relationships might be linked.
(###) Using (*****), we
can date the corner capitals to between 1100 and 1140, the scalloped
capital heads on the right of the doorway are reminiscent
of those found at Cormac chapel in Cashel, dating from the
9th century, see (!!!!!!!) here. This
suggests that there might have been contacts between
the Normans and Ireland before the Anglo-Norman invasion
of Ireland at the end of the 12th century.The vault at Durham Cathedral
is an innovation
in the use of ribs and a pointed arch, to distribute the
weight of the nave, possibly associated with the presence of the
Cistercians at this time.
(####) According to a charter,
the region of Avening was endowed to William and Matilda in about 1082,
but the church was probably built later, about
1105. Comparison with the rib vault in the church at Lessay, see
(\\\\\\), shows an interesting stylistic difference, in that the cross
ribs are further
supported by two further lateral and horizontal beams. It
still seems difficult to conclude which church has priority, but
clearly the construction at
Lessay was either difficult to imitate or to prefigure.
The use of eight and six points in the vault, the eight which now meet
in a green man boss,
suggests an Anglo-Saxon as well as Norman influence. The corner
supports of the rear vault are different from Lessay, in the use of
Anglo-Norman
cubical scalloped capitals.
(\)
Now part of Sweden, but,
at the time of construction, a
Danish province, see Liber Census Daniae, often referred to as Kong
Valdemar's Jorgebok.
(\\) The lunette
feature is derived from early Carolingian examples, see (!!!!!) here.
(\\\) The
circular designs from the font and in the pillar capitals are
reminiscent of earlier Cistercian designs, for example at Byland and
Whitby. The pointed
arch forms can also be seen at Rievaulx. It is an open question as to
whether the first pointed vault, at Durham, is Cistercian. The capitals
with circular
shafts at Llanthony Priory and Brecon Cathedral bear a
striking resemblance to
those at Grosmont church and might be from the same period, and
peculiar to Wales. The capital base bosses from Brecon Cathedral have a
circular cap in the same style, the conjunction of the circular headed
columns
with trefoil archform and quatrefoils dates this to about
1260, at the intersection of the lancet and geometric styles.
(\\\\) The circular
headed windows are of two types, the wider possibly originating from
Conques (c1100), while the thinner seem to be
constructed by Walter de Lacy (c1100), with the style possibly
originating in Carolingian designs, see (****) and (!!) here
(\\\\\) The linear
intersecting arch style at the base of the font is Norman, see (!!!!),
but the use of jambs in the arch columns is Anglo-Saxon, so this
belongs
to the Anglo-Norman style in Zarnecki's terminology. The
green man symbol may originate in Ireland with illustrations from the
Book of Kells.
(\\\\\\) The corner tower at
Jumieges (c1067) is a development of some of the earlier Anglo-Saxon
towers in Ireland, but now placed at the corner of a larger
structure, and with a conical turret. The ribbed vault at
Caen is
about 1120, before Saint Denis but after that of Durham Cathedral
(c1115) and
Avening
church (c1105), belonging to the Norman Gothic style in
France, characterised by long wall tribunes and
galleries. Bony cites the forms at Paray-le
Monial (c1110) as the earliest example of pointed arches, so
scaffolding must have been involved in the construction at Durham.
Conant dates the
construction of Lessay
Abbey from 1090 to 1135, the earlier date being before Avening and
Durham. Strafford suggests that Lessay is the origin of
rib vaulting, though Avening also has a claim, and the
height at Durham is a further technical innovation.
(\\\\\\\) The use of lintels
and narrow semi-circular arch forms at Clonmacnoise, Glendalough, where
there is a connection with Reefert church, and Iniscealtra,
dogtooth with narrow semi-circular arch forms at
Monasterboice, and dogtooth arch forms at Kildare, Cashel, Kilmacduagh,
Kells and St. Doulagh's
church
are typical of Anglo-Saxon architecture in England, see for example
(o),(oo) and
(+)-(++++++). Thomas Bell in "An Essay on the Origin and
Progress of
Gothic Architecture with Reference to Irish Round Towers"
mentions the use of herringbone, pilasters and a narrow semi-circular
archform
at St. Finian's church, Clonmacnoise, and also the use of
pilasters at Kildare, see (++++++) above and (##) here , herringbone
is also used in the arches
of the church near Monasterboice. Small
square
forms, as at Cashel and the top window of Scattery Island can be found
in the towers at Deerhurst,
Gloucestershire, at Much Dewchurch and at
Wembury in Devon,
see ([]), ([][]), and ([][][]). Thomas Bell also mentions them in one
of the
adjoining
churches at Monasterboice. The
quadrilateral forms,
found at Monasterboice tower, Kells, Glendalough and St. Doulagh's
church, have an aesthetic
similarity to established Anglo-Saxon forms, which I have
seen at Deerhurst in England. They can probably be found in Ireland
from
an earlier date,
see (!!!) here,
but they
still belong to the Anglo-Saxon period. Bell dates St. Doulagh's church
to 818, in a dispute with Ledwich, who dates it to 993,
so, if Bell is correct,
this might confirm the previous argument. The rectangular
forms of Clones, Devenish, Clonmacnoise (McCarthy's) (8 mentioned
by
Bell at the apex, which he
calls small square, but there are smaller, see above) and
Kilmacduagh have antecedents in the
churches of St. Fechin, Fore,
Ireland, (early 7th C (Petrie)) and
Escomb church,
Durham
(late 7th
C (Clapham)), see (!!!) again here The
conjunction of these rectangular forms in
England might suggest this
was an
Anglo-Saxon
innovation in Ireland.
A wider
circular archform with chevron moulding and an 8-point flower can be
found at Kildare, together with an embattled
parapet wall, again suggesting a later Anglo-Norman addition to an
original Anglo-Saxon design. The conical
tops at Clonmacnoise,
Glendalough,
Iniscealtra, Cashel, Kilmacduagh, Devenish, and, the tallest at
Ardmore, can be found at Jumieges in France, see
(\\\\\\), but the triangular
saddleback towers
are
also
common in England, for example at Syde and Ampney, see (####) here,
so it is a debatable issue
as to whether these were built before
1066, or
replaced
by the Anglo-Normans after 1067. The round tower at Kilkenny had a
conical top, which was
later removed by Cromwell. The round tower at Timahoe
exhibits rectangular, dogtooth and a keyhole form in the windows, which
may have been
influenced by earlier Anglo-Saxon or Carolingian designs, the front
Romanesque window is Norman with exterior carvings, it is though to be
mid 12th
century, which belongs to the Anglo-Norman period. The round tower at
Cashel is conventionally dated to about 1100, but the dogtooth forms in
the
windows at 30, 90, 150 and 180 degrees, and the rectangular form at 135
degrees, suggest an Anglo-Saxon influence. Callahan in "The
Mysterious
Round Towers of Ireland. Low Energy Radio in Nature", explores the idea
that the towers might have been part of a complex antenna, suggesting
that
Anglo-Saxon scientific technology could have been quite advanced.
Elizabeth Rees in "Celtic
Saints of Ireland" notes the existence of a large church bell
at Cashel, surviving from the 9th century, which has an intricate,
light,
aperiodic
tiling pattern, reminiscent of some geometric designs found in the
"Book
of Kells". Rees suggests
that
Reefert church
in Glendalough is 11th century, while St. Kevin's church there is 12th
century, and the plaque
on the belltower
gives a date 900-1200. The doorway of the Priest's
House is clearly Anglo-Norman due to the chevron moulding and square
headed
jambs. There are a
number of quadrilateral doorways, at Reefert and the
Priest's House, reminiscent of Anglo-Saxon forms in
England. The doorway of St. Kevin's church is
in a simple Romanesque
style, with a lintel, while one of the windows at Reefert is a keyhole
shape, possibly with a
Carolingian influence. The round tower
at
Kilossy is
mentioned by Bell, noting the unusual square base, this seems to be due
to buttressing
which was a later Norman innovation. He also mentions
the lancet
windows at Christchurch, and some architectural features at Down
Cathedral, which are similar in
appearance to numerous examples in England
from the Lancet (Early
English) and Perpendicular periods. The exterior vault at Timleague
Abbey is pointed, in the style of the Lancet period, with the
outer
walkway having a possible connection with an architectural innovation
at Glasgow Cathedral, see
(\\\\\\\\\). The
height and shape is influenced by the
Anglo-Saxon use of tall narrow
splay windows, for example at Aston Piper, see (####) here, and the
Church
of Sons of Nessan, Ireland's Eye, see above.
The battlements at Down
may be
derived from castle designs, possibly originating in Denmark.
(\\\\\\\\) The
fragment at Glastonbury Abbey is similar to a design at Valviscolo in
Italy, after 1180, with the cross pointing vertically,but in the style
of the Geometric
period.
(\\\\\\\\\) The
exterior walkway at St. Kentigern's surrounds the nave and is copied at
crypt level. The rectangular groundplan may be influenced by castles in
Denmark,
and Scotland, for example at Asserbo and Kilchurn, see here.
(A)
The pillar with the square lintel is reminiscent of the
Anglo-Romanesque style, found at the church in Anagni, Italy. It may be
from the remains of an earlier
Anglo-Norman church, connected to the adjacent
castle at Skenfrith. The Templar church at Garway, from the Norman
period, which may have been used as a
fortification, faces Skenfrith on the border between England and Wales,
and there may be a connection between the two.
(B) The corner capital
dates the archway at St. Andrew's to 1100-1140, see (*****), the
archway at St. Oswald's is reminiscent of the style used at Cefalu
Cathedral, Sicily, but the use of an Anglo-Norman pier is typically
English. Cefalu Cathedral was built after 1131, see (!) here, and the
Anglo-Norman
style continued into the 12th century, see (*****) here.
(C) E.A.Fisher
in "Anglo-Saxon Towers" notes "At Abernethy, a window near the cap has
a deeply projecting semi-circular hood mould and, below plain
imposts, vertical pilaster strips alongside the jambs.
This feature is clearly of Anglo-Saxon, not Irish, inspiration; it does
not occur in Irish towers." The
pilaster strips can also be seen in the doorway, the heads
of the pilaster strips in the window and the left shaft resemble the 3
shaft design at
Bradford-on-Avon, see (o). According to Historic Scotland, the tower
was built at the
end of the 11th century, which would place it within the
Anglo-Norman
period, possibly there was an earlier tower from which the Anglo-Saxon
features were added.
(D) Dating from
1135, after the construction of Mont Sant Michel.
(E)
The font design shows a mastery in the geometry of circles. Twelve
opposing circular arcs make up six lozenges inscribed in a circle, the
arcs passing
through the circle centre, and the centres of the arcs themselves
positioned on the circle circumference at six equal angles. There may
be an Anglo-Saxon
influence, as a similar pattern can be found at Brewardine, see (*****).
(F)
The Agnus Dei symbol was used by the Knights Templars, as, for example
at Valvisciolo Abbey cloisters in Italy, see here. In this
case, the symbol is
also used
in conjunction with the Norman grooved corner capital, suggesting that
the two groups were related. It is well known that there was an
exchange of ideas between the Knights Templar and Arabic countries in
the Holy Land during the First Crusade, (1096-1099), on the subject of
algebra.
The fact that the Normans were highly developed in geometry, see
(E), and the relationship with the Knights Templar, further
supports the idea that
mathematics in England after the conquest was highly developed, in a
form which we might currently refer to as algebraic or coordinate
geometry.
(G)
The use of herringbone masonry and all these forms except the splay
window can be found in Ireland, see (///////).
(H) The
lozenge design found in (E) is visible in a tiling pattern above the
second and third doorways, there is further use of beakhead
ornamentation, cross,
diamond and square wave patterns, as well as chevron
marking. The first chancel pillar is decorated with a series of
semicircles, cut out from a three
dimensional conical shape. The second chancel pillar
carries the volute design, with an inflexion, similar to that used at
Great Rissington, see (L) here.
It is interesting to note that volute capitals found in England are
often wider than their counterparts in France. In all these cases, we
see the characteristic
Norman fascination in geometry.
(I)
The carvings depict St. Peter holding the keys of heaven, presumably
then the original church here was Anglo-Saxon, and a cross, similar to
a Celtic cross
design, found at Mylor, reinforcing the idea that there
were strong artistic relationships between Anglo-Saxon England and
Ireland.
(J) The
style is Anglo-Norman due to the square headed riposts. The details of
the pillars depict a plant leaf, possibly Cassia, which might have been
used for
treating leprosy. Cassia can be used as an antibiotic due
to the action of cinnamic acid on a bacterial membrane, see also here for the
effects of other acids.
One of the details depicts an inflexionary spiral
pattern, possibly inspired by a natural form, developing ideas in both
Corinthian and Ionic architecture, see
also (L) here.